Xi Y, Xu P. Global colorectal cancer
burden in 2020 and projections
to 2040. Translational Oncology.
2021;14(10):101174.
2. Roshandel G, Ferlay J, Ghanbari-
Motlagh A, Partovipour E, Salavati
F, Aryan K, et al. Cancer in Iran 2008
to 2025: Recent incidence trends and
short-term predictions of the future
burden. International Journal of
Cancer. 2021;149(3):594-605.
3. Mohammadianpanah M. Colorectal
cancer incidence: does Iran follow the
West? Iranian Journal of Colorectal
Research. 2015;3(1):0-.
4. Keller DS, Berho M, Perez RO, Wexner
SD, Chand M. The multidisciplinary
management of rectal cancer.
Nature Reviews Gastroenterology &
Hepatology. 2020;17(7):414-29.
5. Bananzadeh A, Hafezi AA, Nguyen N,
Omidvari S, Mosalaei A, Ahmadloo N,
et al. Efficacy and safety of sequential
neoadjuvant chemotherapy and shortcourse
radiation therapy followed by
delayed surgery in locally advanced
rectal cancer: a single-arm phase II
clinical trial with subgroup analysis
between the older and young patients.
Radiat Oncol J. 2021;39(4):270-8.
6. Alves A, Panis Y, Mathieu P,
Mantion G, Kwiatkowski F, Slim
K, et al. Postoperative Mortality
and Morbidity in French Patients
Undergoing Colorectal Surgery:
Results of a Prospective Multicenter
Study. Archives of Surgery.
2005;140(3):278-83.
7. van der Valk MJM, Hilling DE,
Bastiaannet E, Meershoek-Klein
Kranenbarg E, Beets GL, Figueiredo
NL, et al. Long-term outcomes of
clinical complete responders after
neoadjuvant treatment for rectal cancer
in the International Watch & Wait
Database (IWWD): an international
multicentre registry study. Lancet.
2018;391(10139):2537-45.
8. van der Pas MH, Haglind E, Cuesta
MA, Fürst A, Lacy AM, Hop WC, et al.
Laparoscopic versus open surgery for
rectal cancer (COLOR II): short-term
outcomes of a randomised, phase 3
trial. Lancet Oncol. 2013;14(3):210-8.
9. Vennix S, Pelzers L, Bouvy N,
Beets GL, Pierie JP, Wiggers T,
et al. Laparoscopic versus open
total mesorectal excision for rectal
cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev.
2014(4):Cd005200.
10. Podda M, Sylla P, Baiocchi G,
Adamina M, Agnoletti V, Agresta F,
et al. Multidisciplinary management
of elderly patients with rectal
cancer: recommendations from the
SICG (Italian Society of Geriatric
Surgery), SIFIPAC (Italian Society
of Surgical Pathophysiology), SICE
(Italian Society of Endoscopic
Surgery and new technologies),
and the WSES (World Society of
Emergency Surgery) International
Consensus Project. World J Emerg
Surg. 2021;16(1):35.
11. Teo MTW, McParland L, Appelt
AL, Sebag-Montefiore D. Phase 2
Neoadjuvant Treatment Intensification
Trials in Rectal Cancer: A Systematic
Review. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys.
2018;100(1):146-58.
12. De Caluwé L, Van Nieuwenhove
Y, Ceelen WP. Preoperative
chemoradiation versus radiation alone
for stage II and III resectable rectal
cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev.
2013(2):Cd006041.
13. Bitterman DS, Resende Salgado
L, Moore HG, Sanfilippo NJ, Gu
P, Hatzaras I, et al. Predictors
of Complete Response and
Disease Recurrence Following
Chemoradiation for Rectal Cancer.
Front Oncol. 2015;5:286.
14. Ngan SY, Burmeister B, Fisher RJ,
Solomon M, Goldstein D, Joseph D, et
al. Randomized Trial of Short-Course
Radiotherapy Versus Long-Course
Chemoradiation Comparing Rates of
Local Recurrence in Patients With
T3 Rectal Cancer: Trans-Tasman
Radiation Oncology Group Trial
01.04. Journal of Clinical Oncology.
2012;30(31):3827-33.
15. Bahadoer RR, Dijkstra EA, van
Etten B, Marijnen CAM, Putter
H, Kranenbarg EM, et al. Shortcourse
radiotherapy followed by
chemotherapy before total mesorectal
excision (TME) versus preoperative
chemoradiotherapy, TME, and
optional adjuvant chemotherapy
in locally advanced rectal cancer
(RAPIDO): a randomised, openlabel,
phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol.
2021;22(1):29-42.
16. Appelt AL, Pløen J, Harling H,
Jensen FS, Jensen LH, Jørgensen JC,
et al. High-dose chemoradiotherapy
and watchful waiting for distal
rectal cancer: a prospective
observational study. Lancet Oncol.
2015;16(8):919-27.
17. Garcia-Aguilar J, Patil S, Gollub MJ,
Kim JK, Yuval JB, Thompson HM,
et al. Organ Preservation in Patients
With Rectal Adenocarcinoma Treated
With Total Neoadjuvant Therapy.
Journal of Clinical Oncology.
2022;40(23):2546-56.
18. Aref A, Abdalla A. Total Neoadjuvant
Therapy for Locally Advanced Rectal
Cancer: Induction or Consolidation
Chemotherapy? Journal of Clinical
Oncology. 2022;40(23):2515-9.
19. Hearn N, Atwell D, Cahill K, Elks
J, Vignarajah D, Lagopoulos J, et
al. Neoadjuvant Radiotherapy Dose
Escalation in Locally Advanced
Rectal Cancer: a Systematic Review
and Meta-analysis of Modern
Treatment Approaches and Outcomes.
Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol).
2021;33(1):e1-e14.
20. Omidvari S, Zohourinia S, Ansari
M, Ghahramani L, Zare-Bandamiri
M, Mosalaei A, et al. Efficacy and
Safety of Low-Dose-Rate Endorectal
Brachytherapy as a Boost to
Neoadjuvant Chemoradiation in
the Treatment of Locally Advanced
Distal Rectal Cancer: A Phase-II
Clinical Trial. Ann Coloproctol.
2015;31(4):123-30.
21. Nguyen NP, Ceizyk M, Vock J, Vos P,
Chi A, Vinh-Hung V, et al. Feasibility
of image-guided radiotherapy
for elderly patients with locally
advanced rectal cancer. PLoS One.
2013;8(8):e71250-e.
22. Vuong T, Garant A, Vendrely V, Nout
R, Martin AG, Enger SA, et al. Image-
Guided Brachytherapy for Rectal
Cancer: Reviewing the Past Two
Decades of Clinical Investigation.
Cancers (Basel). 2022;14(19).
23. Huang Y, Lee D, Young C. Predictors
for complete pathological response for
stage II and III rectal cancer following
neoadjuvant therapy - A systematic
review and meta-analysis. Am J Surg.
2020;220(2):300-8.
24. Hosseini S, Nguyen N,
Mohammadianpanah M, Mirzaei
S, Bananzadeh AM. Predictive
Significance of Mucinous Histology
on Pathologic Complete Response
Rate Following Capecitabine-Based
Neoadjuvant Chemoradiation in
Rectal Cancer: a Comparative Study.
Journal of Gastrointestinal Cancer.
2019;50(4):716-22.
25. Zhang J, Xie X, Wu Z, Hu H, Cai Y,
Li J, et al. Mucinous Adenocarcinoma
Predicts Poor Response and Prognosis
in Patients With Locally Advanced
Rectal Cancer: A Pooled Analysis of
Individual Participant Data From 3
Prospective Studies. Clin Colorectal
Cancer. 2021;20(4):e240-e8.
26. Sun Z, Adam MA, Kim J, Shenoi
M, Migaly J, Mantyh CR. Optimal
Timing to Surgery after Neoadjuvant
Chemoradiotherapy for Locally
Advanced Rectal Cancer. J Am Coll
Surg. 2016;222(4):367-74 27. Benson AB, Venook AP, Al-Hawary
MM, Azad N, Chen YJ, Ciombor KK,
et al. Rectal Cancer, Version 2.2022,
NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in
Oncology. J Natl Compr Canc Netw.
2022;20(10):1139-67.
28. Akgun E, Caliskan C, Bozbiyik O,
Yoldas T, Doganavsargil B, Ozkok
S, et al. Effect of interval between
neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy and
surgery on disease recurrence and
survival in rectal cancer: long-term
results of a randomized clinical trial.
BJS Open. 2022;6(5).
29. Terzi C, Bingul M, Arslan NC,
Ozturk E, Canda AE, Isik O, et al.
Randomized controlled trial of 8
weeks’ vs 12 weeks’ interval between
neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy
and surgery for locally advanced
rectal cancer. Colorectal Dis.
2020;22(3):279-88.
30. Ma B, Gao P, Song Y, Huang X,
Wang H, Xu Q, et al. Short-Course
Radiotherapy in Neoadjuvant
Treatment for Rectal Cancer: A
Systematic Review and Metaanalysis.
Clinical Colorectal Cancer.
2018;17(4):320-30.e5.
31. Perez RO, Habr-Gama A, São
Julião GP, Lynn PB, Sabbagh C,
Proscurshim I, et al. Predicting
complete response to neoadjuvant
CRT for distal rectal cancer using
sequential PET/CT imaging. Tech
Coloproctol. 2014;18(8):699-708.
32. Kalff V, Duong C, Drummond EG,
Matthews JP, Hicks RJ. Findings on
18F-FDG PET scans after neoadjuvant
chemoradiation provides prognostic
stratification in patients with
locally advanced rectal carcinoma
subsequently treated by radical
surgery. J Nucl Med. 2006;47(1):14-22.
33. Pyo DH, Choi JY, Lee WY,
Yun SH, Kim HC, Huh JW, et
al. A Nomogram for Predicting
Pathological Complete Response to
Neoadjuvant Chemoradiotherapy
Using Semiquantitative Parameters
Derived From Sequential PET/CT
in Locally Advanced Rectal Cancer.
Front Oncol. 2021;11:742728.
34. Beets-Tan RGH, Lambregts DMJ,
Maas M, Bipat S, Barbaro B,
Curvo-Semedo L, et al. Magnetic
resonance imaging for clinical
management of rectal cancer: Updated
recommendations from the 2016
European Society of Gastrointestinal
and Abdominal Radiology (ESGAR)
consensus meeting. Eur Radiol.
2018;28(4):1465-75.
35. Gollub MJ, Arya S, Beets-Tan RG,
dePrisco G, Gonen M, Jhaveri K, et al.
Use of magnetic resonance imaging
in rectal cancer patients: Society of
Abdominal Radiology (SAR) rectal
cancer disease-focused panel (DFP)
recommendations 2017. Abdom
Radiol (NY). 2018;43(11):2893-902.
36. Marincaş AM, Prunoiu VM, Brătucu
E, Cirimbei C, Ionescu S, Buzatu R, et
al. Clinical and Paraclinical Criteria
of Patient Selection for the Nonoperative
Treatment in Completely
Responsive Rectal Cancer (after
Neoadjuvant Radiochemotherapy).
Chirurgia (Bucur). 2015;110(4):351-5.
37. Memon S, Lynch AC, Bressel M, Wise
AG, Heriot AG. Systematic review
and meta-analysis of the accuracy
of MRI and endorectal ultrasound
in the restaging and response
assessment of rectal cancer following
neoadjuvant therapy. Colorectal Dis.
2015;17(9):748-61.
38. Cote A, Florin FG, Mois E, Elisei R,
Badea R, Mare C, et al. The accuracy
of endorectal ultrasonography and
high-resolution magnetic resonance
imaging for restaging rectal cancer
after neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy.
Ann Ital Chir. 2018;89:168-76.
39. de Jong EA, ten Berge JC, Dwarkasing
RS, Rijkers AP, van Eijck CH.
The accuracy of MRI, endorectal
ultrasonography, and computed
tomography in predicting the response
of locally advanced rectal cancer after
preoperative therapy: A metaanalysis.
Surgery. 2016;159(3):688-99.
40. Smith JJ, Chow OS, Gollub MJ,
Nash GM, Temple LK, Weiser
MR, et al. Organ Preservation in
Rectal Adenocarcinoma: a phase II
randomized controlled trial evaluating
3-year disease-free survival in
patients with locally advanced rectal
cancer treated with chemoradiation
plus induction or consolidation
chemotherapy, and total mesorectal
excision or nonoperative management.
BMC Cancer. 2015;15:767.
41. Glynne-Jones R, Wyrwicz L, Tiret
E, Brown G, Rödel C, Cervantes A,
et al. Rectal cancer: ESMO Clinical
Practice Guidelines for diagnosis,
treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol.
2017;28(suppl_4):iv22-iv40.
42. Wei IH, Garcia-Aguilar J. Nonoperative
management of rectal
cancer: understanding tumor biology.
Minerva Chir. 2018;73(6):601-18.
43. Pianka K, Zhao B, Lee K, Liu S,
Eisenstein S, Ramamoorthy S, et
al. Factors associated with refusing
surgery versus planned nonoperative
management for rectal cancer.
Surgery. 2022;172(5):1309-14.
44. Dattani M, Heald RJ, Goussous G,
Broadhurst J, São Julião GP, Habr-
Gama A, et al. Oncological and
Survival Outcomes in Watch and Wait
Patients With a Clinical Complete
Response After Neoadjuvant
Chemoradiotherapy for Rectal
Cancer: A Systematic Review
and Pooled Analysis. Ann Surg.
2018;268(6):955-67.
45. Nasir I, Fernandez L, Vieira P, Parés
O, Santiago I, Castillo-Martin M, et
al. Salvage surgery for local regrowths
in Watch & Wait - Are we harming
our patients by deferring the surgery?
Eur J Surg Oncol. 2019;45(9):1559-66.
46. Habr-Gama A, Gama-Rodrigues J,
São Julião GP, Proscurshim I, Sabbagh
C, Lynn PB, et al. Local recurrence
after complete clinical response and
watch and wait in rectal cancer after
neoadjuvant chemoradiation: impact
of salvage therapy on local disease
control. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys.
2014;88(4):822-8.
47. Kong JC, Guerra GR, Warrier SK,
Ramsay RG, Heriot AG. Outcome and
Salvage Surgery Following “Watch
and Wait” for Rectal Cancer after
Neoadjuvant Therapy: A Systematic
Review. Dis Colon Rectum.
2017;60(3):335-45.
48. On J, Shim J, Aly EH. Systematic
review and meta-analysis on outcomes
of salvage therapy in patients with
tumour recurrence during ‘watch and
wait’ in rectal cancer. Ann R Coll
Surg Engl. 2019;101(7):441-52.
49. Chadi SA, Malcomson L, Ensor J,
Riley RD, Vaccaro CA, Rossi GL, et
al. Factors affecting local regrowth
after watch and wait for patients
with a clinical complete response
following chemoradiotherapy in rectal
cancer (InterCoRe consortium): an
individual participant data metaanalysis.
Lancet Gastroenterol
Hepatol. 2018;3(12):825-36.
50. Habr-Gama A, Sabbaga J, Gama-
Rodrigues J, São Julião GP,
Proscurshim I, Bailão Aguilar P, et
al. Watch and wait approach following
extended neoadjuvant chemoradiation
for distal rectal cancer: are we getting
closer to anal cancer management? Dis
Colon Rectum. 2013;56(10):1109-17.
51. López-Campos F, Martín-Martín M,
Fornell-Pérez R, García-Pérez JC, Die-
Trill J, Fuentes-Mateos R, et al. Watch
and wait approach in rectal cancer:
Current controversies and future
directions. World J Gastroenterol.
2020;26(29):4218-39.
52. Dossa F, Chesney TR, Acuna SA,
Baxter NN. A watch-and-wait
approach for locally advanced rectal
cancer after a clinical complete
response following neoadjuvant
chemoradiation: a systematic
review and meta-analysis.
Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017;2(7):501-13.
53. Bibi S, Edilbe MW, Rao C. The Costeffectiveness
of Watch and Wait for
Rectal Cancer. Clin Oncol (R Coll
Radiol). 2022.
54. Rodriguez-Pascual J, Nuñez-Alfonsel
J, Ielpo B, Lopez M, Quijano Y, de
Vicente E, et al. Watch-and-Wait
policy versus robotic surgery for
locally advanced rectal cancer: A costeffectiveness
study (RECCOSTE).
Surg Oncol. 2022;41:101710.
55. Dossa F, Chesney TR, Acuna SA,
Baxter NN. A watch-and-wait
approach for locally advanced rectal
cancer after a clinical complete
response following neoadjuvant
chemoradiation: a systematic review
and meta-analysis. The Lancet
Gastroenterology & Hepatology.
2017;2(7):501-13.
56. Cercek A, Lumish M, Sinopoli J,
Weiss J, Shia J, Lamendola-Essel M,
et al. PD-1 Blockade in Mismatch
Repair-Deficient, Locally Advanced
Rectal Cancer. N Engl J Med.
2022;386(25):2363-76.
57. Mi M, Ye C, Yuan Y. Neoadjuvant
PD-1 blockade: a promising
nonoperative strategy for mismatch
repair-deficient, locally advanced
rectal cancer. Signal Transduct Target
Ther. 2022;7(1):361.
58. Fleischmann M, Diefenhardt M,
Trommel M, Scherf C, Ramm U,
Chatzikonstantinou G, et al. Imageguided
high-dose-rate brachytherapy
for rectal cancer: technical note and
first clinical experience on an organpreserving
approach. Strahlenther
Onkol. 2022;198(7):654-62.